Business Research Designs
1. Business Research Design : Exploratory, Descriptive—Topics to be covered & Causal Research: Meaning, various types of experimental designs, types — Descriptive Research: Meaning, Types of Descriptive studies, data collection methods— Exploratory Research: Meaning, suitability, collection, hypoth esis formulation—Causal Research
2. Business Research DesignA research design is a framework or blueprint for conducting the marketing research project. It details the procedures necessary for obtaining the information needed to structure and/or solve marketing research problems. A research design lays the foundation for conducting the project. A good research design will ensure that the marketing research project is conducted effectively and efficiently.
3. Develop a plan of data analysis. — Specify the sampling process and sampling size.— Construct and pretest a questionnaire (interviewing form) or an appropriate form for data collection.— Specify the measurement and scaling procedures.— Design the exploratory, descriptive and/or causal phases of the researches.— Define the information needed.—A research design involves the following components:
4. Classification of MarketingResearch Designs Research Design Exploratory ConclusiveResearch Design Research Design Descriptive Causal Research Research Cross-Sectional Longitudinal Design Design
5. Parameter Exploratory Descriptive Causal s Describe Determine Objective Discover market cause and ideas and characteristics effect insights. or functions. relationships. Marked by the Manipulation Flexible, Versatile prior formulation of one or moreCharacteristics Often the front of specific independent end of total hypotheses. variables. research design Preplanned and Control of structured other Uses non- design. mediating probability Probability variables. Well-defined Methods sampling. No preplanned sampling design. sampling plan and analysis Data collected data is collected techniques. Uses through Surveys, through method of expert Panels and experiments under survey, Secondary Secondary data controlled or natural —Comparison of Basic Research Designs
6. Research is interactive in nature and also it is open ended. — This type of research allows very wide exploration of views.— Cost incurred to conduct study is low.— Experimentation is not a requirement.— For data collection structured forms are not used.— Exploratory research is flexible and very versatile.—Exploratory ResearchThe major emphasis in exploratory research is on converting broad, vague problem statements into small, precise sub-problem statements, which is done in order to formulate specific hypothesis.Characteristics of Exploratory Research:
7. Formulate a problem or define a pro—Purpose of Exploratory Research Appropriate to any problem about which very little is known. This research is the foundation for any future study. — Establish priorities for further research.— Gain insights for developing an approach to the problem.— Isolate key variables and relationships for further examination.— Develop hypotheses.— Identify alternative courses of action.—blem more precisely.
8. Literature Search develop a new hypothesis.” The literature referred are: trade journals, professional journals, market research finding publications, statistical publications, etc.Example: Suppose a problem is “Why are sales down?” This can quickly be analysed with the help of published data which should indicate “whether the problem is an industry problem or a firm problem”. Three possibilities exist to formulate the hypothesis.1. The company‟s market share has declined but industry‟s figures are normal.2. The industry is declining and hence the company‟s market share is also declining.3. The industry‟s share is going up but the company‟s share is declining.If we accept the situation that our company‟s sales are down despite the market showing an upward trend, then we need to analyse the marketing mix variables. —Exploratory ResearchMethods – This refers to “referring to a literature to
9. Expert Surveys – In expert surveys, it is desirable to talk to persons who are well informed in the area being investigated. These people may be company executives or persons outside the organisation. Here, no questionnaire is required. The approach adopted in an experience survey should be highly unstructured, so that the respondent can give divergent views.Example :1. A group of housewives may be approached for their choice for a “Ready to Eat” product.2. A publisher might want to find out the reason for poor circulation of newspaper introduced recently. He might meet a) Newspaper sellers b) Public reading room c) General Public d) Business community etc. —
10. Focus Group – Another widely used technique in exploratory research is the focus group. In a focus group, a small number of individuals are brought together to study and talk about some topic of interest. The discussion is coordinated by a moderator. The group usually is of 8-12 persons. While selecting these persons, care has to be taken to see that they should have a common background and have similar experiences in buying. This is required because there should not be a conflict among the group members on the common issues that are being discussed. —
11. Secondary Data Analysis – Secondary data refers to literature, published or unpublished, available as a result of studies made by others for their own purposes. A researcher may review the literature with the purpose of framing a hypothesis, or he may review hypothesis already developed for further study by others to see their applicability. The sources of data can be bibliographies available on the topic, journals, magazines, newspapers, reports and books, special catalogues, subject guides, online on the internet, digital libraries, e-databases maintained by the organization, guides, directories, indexes, Statistical data, Census data and other government publications. —
12. Case- Study Analysis – Analysing a selected case sometimes gives an insight into the problem which is being researched. Case histories of companies which have undergone a similar situation may be available. These case are well suited to carry out exploratory research. For eg, Case Study on Mumbai Dabbawalas gives an insight into the problem of Supply Chain. A company implementing the practice of Supply Chain can take take useful inputs from the case. —
13. A Case in PointA company manufacturing electric shavers, known for its brand, wanted to introduce the product in Japan. Before the launch, the company made sure that all the 4Ps are acceptable to customers. When the product was launched, it met with failure. The company wondered what went wrong. Later investigations revealed that Japanese palms were very small and hence the product was not convenient for use. All possible causes were not listed and examined. This shows the importance of listing all factors during an exploratory research. —
14. Qualitative & QuantitativeResearchQualitative Research – An unstructured, exploratory research methodology based on small samples that provides insights and understanding of the problem setting.Quantitative Research – A research methodology that seeks to quantify the data and typically applies some form of statistical analysis.
15. s Research Quantitative Research Objective To gain a qualitative To quantify the data understanding of and generalize the the underlying results from the sample reasons and to the population of motivations interest. Sample Small number of Large number of nonrepresentative representative cases cases Data Unstructured collection Structured Data Nonstatistical Statistical analysis Outcome Develop an initial Recommend a final understanding course of action —Qualitative Vs QuantitativeResearch Parameter Qualitative
16. Qualitative Research Methods Depth Delphi Projective Focus GroupInterview Technique Technique Word Completion Thematic Association Test Technique Apperception Test Expressive Technique
17. Depth Interview – An unstructured, direct, personal interview in which a single respondent is probed by a highly skilled interviewer to uncover underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes and feelings on a topic. The interview may be conducted in a casual and informal manner in which the flow of the conversation determines what questions are to be asked and the order in which they should be asked. —
18. Delphi Technique – This is a process where a group of experts in the field gather together. They may have to reach a consensus on forecasts. In the Delphi approach, the group members are asked to make individual judgments about a particular subject, say „sales forecast‟. These judgments are compiled and returned to the group members, so that they can compare their previous judgment with those of others. Then they are given an opportunity to revise their judgments, especially if it differs from the others. After 5 to 6 rounds of interaction, the group members reach conclusion. —
19. Projective Techniques – These are indirect method of gathering information/ indirect interview and are unstructured and involve indirect form of questioning.1. Word Association Test – This test consists of presenting a series of stimulus words to the respondent, who is asked to answer quickly with the first word that comes to his mind. The respondent, by answering quickly, gives the word that he or she associates most closely with the stimulus word.Eg. What brand of detergent comes to your mind first, when I mention washing of an expensive cloth? Surf, Tide, Key, Ariel. —
20. 2. Completion Techniques – Sentence completion – Here the respondents have to finish a set of incomplete sentences. Eg. For providing a basis for developing advertising appeal for a brand of cooking oil, the following sentence may be used:People use cooking oil ……………..Costliest cooking oil ………..Most of the new cooking oil …………Story Completion – A situation is described to a respondent who is asked to complete the story based on his opinion and attitude.
21. 3. Thematic Apperception Test – It is used to measure the attitude and perception of the individual. Some picture cards are shown to respondents. The respondent is required to tell the story by looking at the picture. When the subjects start telling the story, the researcher notices the respondent‟s expression, pauses and emotions to draw the inference.4. Expressive Technique – Respondents are presented with a verbal or visual situation and asked to relate the feelings and attitudes of other people to the situation. The techniques are role playing (Respondents are asked to play the role of someone else.) and Third-Person (Respondent is presented with a verbal or visual situation and asked to relate the beliefs and attitudes of a third person.)
22. Hypothesis FormulationHypothesis is an unproven statement or proposition about a factor or phenomenon that is of interest to the researcher. It may be a tentative statement about relationships between two or more variables as stipulated by the theoretical framework or the analytical model.
23. Components of the MARKETING Research ProblemObjective/TheoreticalFramework Research QuestionsAnalyticalModel Hypotheses
24. At exploratory stage:1. Sometimes, it may not be possible to develop any hypothesis at all, if the situation is being investigated for the first time. This is because no previous data is available.2. Sometimes, some information may be available and it may be possible to formulate a tentative hypothesis.3. In other cases, most of the data is available and it may be possible to provide answers to the problem.
25. ExamplesS. No. Research Purpose Research Hypothesis Question1. What product feature, What benefit No hypothesis if stated, will be most do people formulation is effective in the derive from possible. advertisement? this Ad appeal?2. What new packaging What Paper cup is is to be developed by alternatives better than any the company? exist to provide other forms, a container for such as a bottle. soft drink?3. How can our What is the Impersonalizatio insurance service be nature of n is the improved? customer problem. dissatisfaction ? —
26. Requires a clear specification of “Who, what, when, where, why and how — Inform us about the proportions of high and low income customers in a particular territory— It can describe the characteristics of a group such as, customers, organisations, markets etc. It provides association between two variables, like income and place of shopping, age and preferences.—Descriptive ResearchDescriptive Research is to describe something – usually market characteristics or functions.
27. Hypothesis Study at theDescriptive Research StageManagement Research problem HypothesisproblemHow should a new Where do customers Upper class buyersproduct be buy a similar product use „Shoppers Stop‟distributed? right now? and middle class buyers buy from local departmental stores.What will be the target What kind of people Senior citizens buy oursegment? buy our product now? products. Young and married buy our competitors products.
28. To make specific predictions. — To determine the degree to which marketing variables are associated.— To determine the perceptions of product characteristics.— To estimate the percentage of units in a specified population exhibiting a certain behavior.— To describe the characteristics of relevant groups, such as consumers, salespeople, organizations or market areas.—Reasons for conducting Research:
29. Sales analysis studies, which describe sales by geographic region, product line, type and size of the account. — Market share studies, which determine the proportion of total sales received by a company and its competitors.— Market studies, which describe the size of the market, buying power of the consumers, availability of distributors and consumer profiles.—Descriptive research is marked by a clear statement of the problem, specific hypotheses and detailed information needs.Examples of descriptive research are:
30. Advertising studies, which describe media consumption habits and audience profiles for specific television programs and magazines. — Pricing studies, which describe the range and frequency of price changes and probable consumer response to proposed price changes.— Distribution studies, which determine traffic flow patterns and the number and location of distributors.— Product usage studies, which describe consumption patterns.— Image studies, which determine consumer perceptions of the firm and its products.—
31. Longitudinal Designs – A type of research design involving a fixed sample of population elements that is measured repeatedly. The sample remains the same over time, thus providing a series of pictures which, when viewed together, portray a vivid illustration of the situation and the changes that are taking place over time.For eg., “ How did the Indian people rate the character of ministers immediately after CWG games?” would be addressed using a cross-sectional design. However, a longitudinal design would be used to address the question, “ How did the Indian people change their view of minister‟s character during CWG Games?” — Cross-Sectional Designs – A type of research design involving the collection of information from any given sample of population elements only once.—Types of descriptive Studies
32. Observation Method – The recording of behavioral patterns of people, objects and events in a systematic manner to obtain information about the phenomenon of interest. — Survey Method – A structured questionnaire given to respondents and designed to elicit specific information.—Methods of Data CollectionThere are mainly two methods of data collection In Descriptive Research:
33. Omnibus Survey – A sample of elements is being selected and maintained, but the information collected from the member varies. At a certain point of time, the attitude of panel members “towards an advertisement” may be measured. At some other point of time the same panel member may be questioned about the “product performance”. — True Survey – This involves repeat measurement of the same variables. Eg. Perception towards frozen peas . Each member of the panel is examined at a different time to arrive at a conclusion on the above subject.—TYPES OF SURVEY
34. Classification of Survey Methods Survey Methods Telephone Personal Mail Electronic Interviewing Interviewing Interviewing Interviewin g Compute In- Mall Compute Mai Mail E-Traditiona r- Hom Intercep r- l Pan mai Internet l Assisted e t Assisted el l
35. Computer-Assisted Telephonic Interviewing – Uses a computerized questionnaire administered to respondents over the telephone. The interviewer sits in front of a computer terminal and wears a miniheadset. When contact is made, the interviewer reads questions posed on the computer screen and records the respondent‟s answers directly into the computer memory bank. — Traditional Telephone Interviews – Phoning a sample of respondents and asking them a series of questions.—Survey Methods
36. Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing – The respondent sits in front of a computer terminal and answers a questionnaire on the computer screen by using the keyboard or a mouse. — Mall Intercept Personal Interviews – Respondents are intercepted while they are shopping in malls and brought to test facilities in the malls.— Personal In-Home Interviews – Respondents are interviewed face-to- face in their home.—
37. Mail Panels – A mail panel consists of a large, nationally representative sample of households that have agreed to participate in periodic mail questionnaires and product tests. — Mail Interviews – Questionnaires are mailed to preselected potential respondents. A typical mail interview package consists of the outgoing envelope, cover letter, questionnaire, return envelope and possibly an incentive. The respondents complete and return the questionnaires.—
38. Internet Interviews – Internet or Web surveys use hypertext markup language and are posted on a Website. Respondents are asked to go to a particular Web location to complete the survey. — E-mail Interviews –To conduct an e-mail survey, a list of e-mail addresses is obtained. The survey is written within the body of the e-mail message. The e-mails are sent out over the internet. Respondents type the answers to either closed-ended or open-ended questions at designated places, and click on reply.—
39. Classification of Observation Methods Observation Methods Personal Mechanical Content Trace Observatio Audit Observation Analysis Analysis n
40. Mechanical Observation – Mechanical devices, rather than human observers, record the phenomenon being observed. Devices are:Audimeter – Attached to a television set to continually record what channel the set is tuned to.People Meters – Attempt to measure not only the channels to which a set is tuned but also who is watching.Turnstiles – Record the number of people entering or leaving a building. — Personal Observation – A researcher observes actual behavior as it occurs. The observer does not attempt to control or manipulate the phenomenon being observed.—Observation Methods
41. On-site cameras – Used by retailers to assess package designs, counter space, floor displays and traffic flow patterns.UPC – Allows for mechanized information collection regarding consumer purchases by product category, brand, store type, price and quantity.Eye-tracking monitors – Records the gaze movements of the eye. Used to determine how a respondent reads an advertisement and views a TV commercial.Pupilometers – Measures changes in the diameter of the pupils of the respondent‟s eye.
42. Audit – The researcher collects data by examining physical records or performing inventory analysis of inventory of brands, quantities and package sizes in a consumer‟s home or at a retail store. —Psychogalvanometer – Measures changes in the electrical resistance of the skin.Voice pitch analysis – Measures emotional reactions through changes in the respondent‟s voice.Response latency – Time a respondent takes before answering a question.
43. Trace Analysis – Data collection is based on physical traces or evidence of past behavior. Eg. No. of different fingerprints on a page was used to find out the readership of various advertisements in a magzine. — Content Analysis – Objective, systematic and quantitative description of the manifest content of a communication. The unit of analysis may be words, characters, themes, space and time measures or topics.—
44. Causal ResearchCausal research is used to obtain evidence of cause and effect relationships. It is appropriate for the following purposes:1. To understand which variables are the cause (independent variables) and which variables are the effect ( dependent variables) of a phenomenon.2. To determine the nature of the relationship between the causal variables and the effect to be
45. For eg. In the context of department store project, a researcher wishes to determine whether the presence and helpfulness of salespeople(causal variable) will influence the sales of housewares (effect variable). A causal design could be formulated in which two groups of otherwise comparable housewares departments of a particular chain are selected. For four weeks, trained salespeople are stationed in one group of housewares departments but not in the other. Sales are monitored for both groups, while controlling for other variables. A comparison of sales for the two groups will reveal the effect of salespeople on housewares sales in department stores.
46. Classification of ExperimentalDesigns Experimental Designs Quasi- True Experiment StatisticalPreexperimental Experimental al One- Shot Case Pretest-Posttest Study Control Group Time Series Latin Square One Group Posttest-Only Multiple Time Pretest-Posttest Control Group Factorial Series Static Group
47. DEFINITION OF SYMBOLSX = the exposure of a group to an independent variable, treatment or event, the effects of which are to be determined.O = the process of observation or measurement of the dependent variable on the test units or group of units.R = the random assignment of test units or groups to separate treatments.
48. Preexperimental designs do not employ randomization procedures to control for extraneous factors.1. One-Shot Case Study – Also known as the after-only design, it is represented as X O1A single group of test units is exposed to a treatment X, and then a single measurement on the dependent variable is taken (O1). There is no random assignment of test units.For eg. An advertisement of Pears Soap is being shown to the respondent (X) and then they were asked whether they recall the ad or not (O1). —Types of Experimentation:
49. 2. One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design – Symbolized as O1 X O2In this design, a group of test units is measured twice. There is no control group. First, a pretreatment measure is taken(O1), then the group is exposed to the treatment(X). Finally, a posttreatment measure is taken(O2). The treatment effect is computed as O2 – O1.For eg. Respondents are first interviewed to know their opinion towards consuming alcohol (O1). An advertisement depicting harmful effects of alcohol is being shown to the respondent (X). After watching ad, the respondents are again being interviewed to test their opinion towards consuming alcohol now (O2). The effectiveness of ad is measured as O2 – O1.
50. 3. Static Group design – It is a two-group experimental design. One group, called the experimental group(EG), is exposed to the treatment, and the other, called the control group (CG), is not. Measurements on both groups are made only after the treatment.Symbolically as: EG : X O1 CG : O2For eg. HUL was trying to find out the impact of free samples of shampoo on the sales of shampoo. To the experimental group, they offered both the free samples and redemption coupon, and to Control Group only the redemption coupon was being offered. Coupons were coded and the number of coupons redeemed by the respondents were calculated. Difference between the coupons redeemed by the EG and CG will give the impact of free samples on sales of the shampoo.
51. True Experimental design – Researcher randomly assigns test units to experimental groups and treatments to experimental groups.4. Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design – Test units are randomly assigned to either the experimental or the control group, and a pretreatment measure is taken on each group. The design is symbolized as EG: R O1 X O2 CG: R O3 O4The Treatment Effect is measured as (O2 - O1) – (O4 – O3)E.g.. In order to measure the impact of tuition on the performance of students, first a sample of respondents would be selected at random. Half of these would be randomly assigned to the experimental group and the other half would form the control group. Respondents in both groups were given a test to check their performance. Only the respondents in the experimental group were given a tuition and then both groups were given test and their performance was checked. —
52. 5. Posttest-Only Control Group Design – Experimental group is exposed to the treatment but the control group is not and no pretest measure is taken. It is symbolized as: EG : R X O1 CG : R O2The treatment effect is obtained by TE = O1 - O2Eg. To measure the effectiveness of ad, a sample of respondents is selected at random. Half of them would be taken as Experimental Group and the other half would be Control Group. An advertisement on harmful effects of alcohol would be shown to only the experimental group and not to the control group. Then the opinion of both the groups on alcoholism would be recorded. Difference in their opinion will tell us the impact of advertisement.
53. Quasi-Experimental Designs – Researcher can control when measurements are taken and on whom they are taken but is unable to expose test units to the treatments randomly.5. Time series design – Involves a series of periodic measurements on the dependent variable for a group of test units. The treatment is then administered by the researcher or occurs naturally. After the treatment, periodic measurements are continued to determine the treatment effect. It may be symbolized as:O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8Eg. There is a trend being followed in share market investment. After watching a business news channel the investment pattern changes. —
54. Statistical designs – Allows for statistical control and analysis of external variables. —6. Multiple Time Series Design – A time series design that includes another group of test units to serve as a control group. Symbolically, it may be described as EG : O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8 CG : O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7 O8
55. 7. Latin Square Design – Allows the researcher to statistically control two noninteracting external variables as well as to manipulate the independent variable.For eg. In order to understand the impact of showing advertisement A ( humor), B ( No Humor) and C(High Humor) to sales in the store. Two control variables are being taken as Store Patronage and Interest in the store. Interest in the store Store High Medium Low Patronage High A C B Medium B A C Low C B A
56. 8. Factorial Design – Used to measure the effects of two or more independent variables at various levels and to allow for interactions between variables.For eg. A Departmental Store is planning to reduce the price of a product. For the same product, they are conducting three promotional campaigns, display at the entrance, display at POP and display anywhere in the store. They have got six combinations, P1X1, P2X1, P1X2, P2X2, P3X1, P3X2. Sales of each of the combinations is recorded in six different stores. Combination giving maximum will be taken as the best.
57. Combinations SalesP1X1 Rs. 12000 Best CombinationP1X2 Rs. 200P2X1 Rs. 476P2X2 Rs. 800P3X1 Rs. 700P3X2 Rs. 1100
58. Nonsampling Sampling Error Error Response Error Nonresponse Error Researcher Interviewer Respondent Errors Error errorSurrogate Information RespondentError Inability Error Selection ErrorMeasurement Error Unwillingness Questioning ErrorPopulation Definition Error Recording ErrorError Cheating Error Sampling Frame Error—Various Types of Errors Total Error Random
59. Nonresponse error arises when some of the respondents included in the sample do not respond. — Nonsampling error can be attributed to sources other than sampling like error in problem definition, approach, scales, questionnaire design, interviewing methods etc.— Random Sampling Error occurs because the particular sample selected is an imperfect representation of the population of interest.— Total error is the variation between the true value in the population of the variable of interest and the observed value obtained in the research project.—
60. Population Definition Error may be defined as the variation between the actual population relevant to the problem at hand and the population as defined by the researcher. — Measurement Error may be defined as the variation between the information sought and information generated by the measurement process employed by the researcher. Seeking to measure consumer preferences, the researcher employs a scale that measures perceptions rather than preferences.— Surrogate Information Error may be defined as the variation between the information needed for the marketing research problem and the information sought by the researcher.— Response Error arises when respondents give inaccurate answers or their answers are misrecorded or misanalyzed.—
61. Respondent selection error occurs when interviewers select respondents other than those specified by the sampling design. — Data analysis error encompasses errors that occur when raw data from questionnaires are transformed into research findings due improper statistical analysis.— Sampling Frame Error may be defined as the variation between the population defined by the researcher and the population as implied by the sampling frame used. For eg. The telephone directory used to generate a list of telephone numbers does not accurately represent the population due to disconnected and new numbers.—
62. Unwillingness error arises from the respondent‟s unwillingness to provide accurate information because of a desire to provide socially acceptable answers, avoid embarrassment or please the interviewer. — Inability Error results from the respondent‟s inability to provide accurate answers due to unfamiliarity, fatigue or boredom.— Cheating error arises when the interviewer himself fills the answers to a part or all of the interview.— Recording error arises due to errors in hearing, interpreting and recording the answers given by the respondents.— Questioning Error denotes errors made in asking questions of the respondents or in not probing when more information is needed.—
63. Deduction and InductionDeductionThe basic concept in deduction is from „Many to One‟ or „Population to Sample‟In this type of logic, we are given information about a population, and we deduce the information about a sample or just one unit.Deduction reasoning works from the „General to the Specific‟. It may also be termed as „top-down‟ approach. It is analogous to Brand Image wherein conclusions are drawn just by the name of the brand.
64. InductionThe basic concept of induction is from: „One to Many‟ or Sample to PopulationInduction could also refer to Generalisation, from what we observe or know. Induction involves reasoning about the future from the past, but in a broad sense, it involves reaching conclusions about unobserved things on the basis of what is actually observed.Induction starts from Specific observations or set of observations to Generalised Theory or Law. It could be termed as „bottom-up‟ approach.It can also be considered as divergent thinking. It is used when nothing or little is known, and we wish to expand our knowledge.
65. Inductive reasoning is open-ended and exploratory especially in the beginning. Deductive reasoning is specific in nature and is concerned with testing or confirming hypothesis. — Inductive research is a model in which theories are developed from specific observations. In deductive research, the specific expectations of a hypothesis are developed on the basis of general principle: we start from existing theory and find its proof.—Deduction Vs Induction
66. For example, in Chennai, a social researcher observes that in a restaurant people from north India prefer to take tea over coffee. He extrapolates or uses inductive logic to conclude that all north Indians prefer tea over coffee.In deductive logic, a researcher starts from the hypothesis that north Indians prefer tea over coffee, and then starts collecting observations to prove or disprove this hypothesis.
67. VariablesA business research study involves study of characteristics of an individual/ item/ unit/ entity etc. These characteristics are represented by variables. A variable changes values for different individual/ item at the same time. Eg. Income of individuals for the year 2009- 2010, prices of stocks on a day or for the same individual/ item at different time. Eg. Income of an individual, sales of a company.The income of an individual is a quantitative variable, gender is a qualitative variable.
68. Independent Variable – Variable which influences or explains the variation in the other variables, under consideration, in the study. The value of this variable can be decided or controlled by the researcher. For eg. If a company increases the number of its branches, it will also increase the business as well as manpower in the company.The number of branches in this study is termed as independent variable. —Categories of Variables
69. Dependent Variable – A dependent variable is one which depends on an independent variable defined in a study. For eg. Expenditure on R—&D could be taken as independent variable , in pharmaceutical firms and sales could be termed as dependent variable. The value of dependent variable is not manipulated or controlled in a research study, it changes due to the change in the independent variable.
70. Moderating Variable – In a study, involving an independent variable and a dependent variable, a relationship could be established through a variable. However, we may come across a third variable, which is not an independent variable but forms strong contingent effect on the relationship of the independent and dependent variables. Training Performance (Independent (Dependent Variable) Variable) Willingness to learn (Moderating Variable) —
71. Intervening Variables – In a study involving independent and dependent variables, there could be a variable/ factor which might affect the dependent variable, but it cannot be directly observed or measured. For eg. The sales of a retail store might increase with increasing discounts and a relationship could be established. Suppose, a scheme is introduced that monthly prizes will be given to randomly selected customers, this might increase the sales of a store but it cannot be measured, only its impact can be observed. Thus, monthly prizes scheme is an intervening —
72. Extraneous Variables – Extraneous variable is one that is outside or external to the situation under study, and its impact on dependent variable is beyond the scope of the study. For eg the family income of students could be taken as extraneous variable while studying performance of MBA students. The value of extraneous variable may be controlled to neutralise its impact. —
73. Instrumentation – Refers to changes in the measuring instrument(questionnaire), observer or the interviewer. — Testing Effects – Caused by the process of experimentation.— Maturation – Refers to changes in the test units themselves like the people become older, experienced, tired or bored.— History – Refers to specific events that are external to the experiment but occur at the same time as the experiment.eg. Downfall in sales can not only be due to poor advertisement but also due to economic downturn.—Categories of ExtraneousVariable
74. Control Variable – This variable is held constant in order to assess or clarify the relationship between two other variables.
No comments:
Post a Comment
Note: only a member of this blog may post a comment.