1. Business Research Methods Classification of Business Research Data.
2. Measurement— Data collection methods – Observations, Survey, Interview and Questionnaire design, Qualitative techniques of data collection.— Data collection: Primary and Secondary data – Sources – advantages/disadvantages.—Topics to be covered & Scaling Techniques: Nominal Scale, Ordinal Scale, Interval Scale, Ratio Scale, Criteria for good measurement, attitude measurement – Likert‟s scale, Semantic Differential Scale, Thurstone-equal appearing interval scale, MDS – Multi Dimensional
3. These data can be located quickly and inexpensively. — Secondary data are data that have already been collected for purposes other than the problem at hand.— Obtaining primary data can be expensive and time consuming.— Primary data are originated by a researcher for the specific purpose of addressing the problem at hand.—Primary Data and SecondaryData
4. Differences between Primaryand Secondary Data Primary Data Secondary Data Collection For the problem For other purpose at hand problems. Collection Very involved Rapid and easy process Collection cost High Relatively low Collection time Long Short
5. Interpret primary data more insightfully. — Answer certain research questions and test some hypotheses.— Formulate an appropriate research design.— Develop an approach to the problem.— Better define the problem.— Identify the problem.— Available on topics where it would not be feasible for a firm to collect primary data.Secondary data can help you:— Secondary data are easily accessible, relatively inexpensive and quickly obtained.—Advantages and uses ofSecondary Data
6. Secondary data may be lacking in accuracy, or they may not be completely — The objectives, nature and methods used to collect the secondary data may not be appropriate to the present situation.— Because secondary data have been collected for purposes other than the problem at hand, their usefulness to the current problem may be limited in several important ways, including relevance and accuracy.—Disadvantages of secondaryData
7. Classification of SecondaryData Secondary Data Internal ExternalReady to Requires Published Computerized Syndicate Use Further Materials d Databases Processing Services
8. External data are those generated by sources outside the organization. These are mainly published materials, computerized databases and syndicated services. — On the other hand, these data may exist within the organization but may require considerable processing before they are useful to the researcher. For eg. A variety of information can be found on sales invoices. Yet this information may not be easily accessible; further processing may be required to extract it.— This information may be available in a ready-to-use format, such as information routinely supplied by the management decision support system.— Internal data are those generated within the organization for which the research is being conducted.—Classification of Secondarydata
9. Sources of Secondary Data Published Secondary Data General Business Government Sources SourcesGuide Indexe Statistica Census Other Directories Governmen s s l Data Data t Publications
10. Statistical Data – Published statistical data are of great interest to researchers. Graphic and statistical analyses can be performed on these data to draw important insights. Eg. A Guide to Consumer Markets. — Indexes – It is possible to locate information on a particular topic in several different publications by using an index. Indexes can, therefore, increase the efficiency of the search process. Eg. Business Periodical Index.— Directories – Helpful for identifying individuals or organizations that collect specific data. Eg. Research Services Directory.— Guides – Excellent source of standard or recurring information. A guide may help identify other important sources such as directories, trade associations and trade publications.—Sources of Published Secondary DataGeneral Business Data
11. Other Government Publications – n addition to the census, the government collects and publishes a great deal of statistical data. The more useful publications are Business Conditions Digest and Survey of Current Business. — Census Data – Provides detailed view of the human population, their income and education level. The quality of census data is high and the data are often extremely detailed. Important census data include Census of Housing, Census of Manufacturers, Census of Population, Census of Retail Trade, Census of Service Industries and Census of Wholesale Trade.—Government Sources
12. Computerized Databases Computerized Databases Online Internet Offline Numeric Full-Text Directory Special-Bibliographi Database Databases Databases Purpose c s DatabaseDatabases s
13. Offline Databases – Databases that are available on diskette or CD-ROM. — Internet Databases – Internet databases can be accessed, searched and analyzed on the internet. It is also possible to download data from the internet and store them in the computer or an auxiliary storage device.— Online Databases- Databases, stored in computers, which require a telecommunications network to access.—
14. Special-purpose Databases – Contain information of a specific nature, e.g. data on a specialized industry. — Directory Databases –Provide information on individuals, organizations and services. Eg. National Electronic Yellow Pages.— Full-Text Databases –Databases containing the complete text of secondary source documents comprising the database.— Numeric Databases – Contain numerical and statistical information that may be important sources of secondary data.— Bibliographic Databases –Databases composed of citations to articles in journals, magazines, newspapers, marketing research studies, technical reports, government documents and the like. They often provide summaries or abstracts of the material cited.—
15. Syndicated Sources of Secondary Data Unit of measurement Households/ Institutions Consumers Industria Panels Retailers Wholesaler s l Firms Purchase Media Electronic Audits Surveys Scanner Direct Services Inquiries Clipping Corpora services e Report Advertisin Volume ScannPsychograp General er Scanner Diary hic and g Tracking Diary Panels with Lifestyles Evaluation Data Panels Cable TV
16. Psychographics and Lifestyles – Psychographics refer to the psychological profiles of individuals and to psychologically based measures of lifestyle. Lifestyles refer to the distinctive modes of living of a society or some of its segments. —Syndicated sources, also referred to as syndicated services, are companies that collect and sell common pools of data of known commercial value, designed to serve information needs shared by a number of clients. These data are not collected for the purpose of marketing research problems specific to individual clients, but the data and reports supplied to client companies can be personalized to fit particular needs.Surveys – Involve interviews with a large number of respondents using a predesigned questionnaire.
17. Advertising Evaluation – The purpose of advertising evaluation surveys is to assess the effectiveness of advertising using print and broadcast media.Purchase and Media Panels – Panels are samples of respondents who provide specified information at regular intervals over an extended period of time. These respondents may be organizations, households or individuals, although household panels are most common. The distinguishing feature of purchase and media panels is that the respondents record specific behaviors in an elect— General surveys – Surveys conducted for a variety of other purposes, including examination of purchase and consumption behavior.— Media Panels – Electronic devices automatically record viewing behavior, thus supplementing a diary or an online panel. — Purchase Panels – Respondents record their purchases of a variety of different products.—ronic diary as they occur.
18. Scanner Panels with cable TV – Combines scanner panels with new technologies growing out of the cable TV industry. Households on these panels subscribe to one of the cable TV systems in their market. — Scanner Panels – Each household member is given an ID card that can be read by the electronic scanner at the cash register. The scanner panel members simply present the ID card at the checkout counter each time they shop.— Volume Tracking Data – Provide information on purchases by brand, size, price and flavor or formulation, based on sales data collected from the checkout scanner tapes.—Electronic Scanner Services- Scanner data reflect some of the latest technological developments in the marketing research industry. Scanner data are collected by passing merchandise over a laser scanner, which optically reads the barcoded description printed on the merchandise.
19. Syndicated Data from InstitutionsRetailer and Wholesaler Audits- A data collection process derived from physical records or performing inventory analysis. Data are collected personally by the researcher or by representatives of the researcher, and the data are based upon counts usually of physical objects other than people. Retailers and wholesalers who participate in the audit receive basic reports and cash payments from the audit service.Industry Services – Provide syndicated data about industrial firms, businesses and other institutions. Financial, operating and employment data are also collected by these syndicated research services. These data are collected by making direct inquiries, from clipping services that monitor newspapers, the trade press and broadcasts; and from corporate reports.
20. Questionnaire DesignA questionnaire, whether it is called a schedule, interview form, or measuring instrument, is a formalized set of questions for obtaining information from respondents. Typically, a questionnaire is only one element of a data- collection package that might also include fieldwork procedures, such as instructions for selecting, approaching and questioning respondents; some reward, gift or payment offered to respondents, and communication aids, such as maps, pictures, advertisements and products and return envelopes.
21. Questionnaire Design Process Specify the information needed. Specify the type of interviewing method. Determine the content of individual questions. Design the question to overcome the respondent‟s inability and unwillingness to answer. Decide on the question structure. Determine the question wording. Arrange the questions in proper order. Identify the form and layout. Reproduce the questionnaire. Eliminate bugs by pretesting.
22. Specify the information needed –It is helpful to review components of the problem and the approach, particularly the research questions, hypotheses and the information needed. It is also important to have a clear idea of the target population. The characteristics of the respondent group have a great influence on questionnaire design. Questions that are appropriate for college students may not be appropriate for housewives. —
23. Type of Interviewing Method –An appreciation of how the type of interviewing method influences questionnaire design can be obtained by considering how the questionnaire is administered under each method. In personal interviews, respondents see the questionnaire and interact face to face with the interviewer. Thus lengthy, complex and varied questions can be asked. In telephone interviews, the respondents interact with the interviewer, but they do not see the questionnaire. This limits the type of questions that can be asked to short and simple ones. Mail questionnaires are self- administered, so the questions must be simple and detailed instructions must be provided. For eg. Ranking 10 stores is too complex a task to be administered over the telephone. Instead, the simpler rating task, where the stores are rated one at a time, is selected to measure preferences. Note the use of cards to facilitate the ranking task in the personal interview. —
24. Individual Question Content – Is the Question Necessary? Every question in a questionnaire should contribute to the information needed or serve some specific purpose. If there is no satisfactory use for the data resulting from a question, that question should be eliminated.Are several questions needed instead of one? Sometimes, several questions are needed to obtain the required information in an unambiguous manner. Eg. Do you think Coca- Cola is a tasty and refreshing soft drink? (Incorrect) Do you think Coca-Cola is a tasty soft drink? and Do you think Coca-Cola is a refreshing soft drink?(Correct) Double barreled question – A single question that attempts to cover two issues. Suc—h questions can be confusing to respondents and result in ambiguous responses.
25. Overcoming Inability to Answer – Certain factors limit the respondent‟s ability to provide the desired information. Is the respondent informed? Respondents are often asked about topics on which they are not informed. A husband may not be informed about monthly expenses for groceries and department store purchases if it is the wife who makes these purchases, or vice versa. Can the Respondent Remember? Evidence indicates that consumers are particularly poor at remembering quantities of products consumed. Thus, soft drink consumption may be better obtained by asking: How often do you consume soft drinks in a typical week?i) Less than once a week.ii) 1to 3 times per week.iii) 4 to 6 times per week.iv) 7 or more times per week.The inability to remember leads to errors of omission ( inability to recall an event that actually took place.), telescoping ( when an individual telescopes or compresses time by remembering an event as occurring more recently than it actually occurred and creation ( when a respondent remembers an event that did not actually occur. —
26. Overcoming Unwillingness to Answer – Effort required of the Respondents – Most respondents are unwilling to devote a lot of effort to provide information. Hence, the researcher should minimize the effort required of the respondents. For eg.Please list all the departments from which you purchased merchandise on your most recent trip to a department store. ( Incorrect)In the list that follows, please check all the departments from which you purchased merchandise on your most recent trip to a department store.1. Women’s Apparel2. Cosmetics3. Men’s apparel ( Correct) —Can the respondent articulate – Respondents may be unable to articulate certain types of responses. For eg. If asked to describe the atmosphere of the department store they would prefer to patronize, most respondents may be unable to phrase their answers. On the other hand, if the respondents are provided with alternative descriptions of store atmosphere, they will be able to indicate the one they like the best.
27. Context – Some questions may seem appropriate in certain contexts but not in others. For eg. Questions about personal hygiene habits may be appropriate when asked in a survey sponsored by Medical association ,but not in a one sponsored by a fast food restra.Sensitive Information – Respondents are unwilling to disclose information on sensitive topics like money, family life, political and religious beliefs. In order to avoid this, sensitive topics to be placed at the end of the questionnaire.
28. Choosing Question Structure –Unstructured Questions – Open-ended questions that respondents answer in their own words.Eg. What is your occupation?They are good as first questions on atopic. They enable the respondents to express general attitudes and opinions that can help the researcher interpret their responses to structured questions.Structured Questions – Specify the set of response alternatives and the response format.i) Multiple-Choice Questions – Researcher provides a choice of answers and respondents are asked to select one or more of the alternatives given.ii) Dichotomous Questions – Has only two response alternatives: yes or no, agree or disagree, and so on.iii) Scales –Scale can be used as :Do you intend to buy a new car within the next six months?Definitely will Probably will Undecided Probably will buy buy not buy —
29. Choosing Question Wording – Translation of the desired question content and structure into words that respondents can clearly and easily understand.Define the issue- A question should clearly define the issue being addressed. Define the issue in terms of who, what, when, where and why. Eg. Which brand or brands of shampoo have you personally used at home during the last month? In case of more than one brand, please list all the brands that apply.Use Ordinary words- Ordinary words should be used in a questionnaire and they should match the vocabulary level of the respondents.Eg. Do you think the distribution of soft drinks is adequate? (Incorrect)Do you think soft drinks are readily available when you want to buy them? (Correct) —
30. Determining the Order of Questions –Opening Questions- The opening questions can be crucial in gaining the confidence and cooperation of respondents. The opening questions should be interesting, simple and nonthreatening. —Use Unambiguous Words – The words used in a questionnaire should have a single meaning that is known to the respondents. A number of words that appear to be unambiguous have different meanings to different people. These include „usually‟, „normally‟, frequently, often and sometimes.
31. Type of Information – Basic information relates directly to the research problem. Classification information, consisting of socioeconomic and demographic characteristics, is used to classify the respondents and understand the results. Identification information includes name, address and telephone number. Basic information should be obtained first, followed by classification and, finally, identification information.Difficult Questions– Difficult questions or questions that are sensitive, embarrassing, complex or dull should be placed late in the sequence. After rapport has been established and the respondents become involved, they are less likely to object to these questions.
32. Reproduction of the Questionnaire - If the questionnaire is reproduced on poor quality paper or is otherwise shabby in appearance, the respondents will think the project is unimportant and the quality of response will be adversely affected. Therefore, the questionnaire should be reproduced on good- quality paper and have a professional appearance. A researcher should avoid splitting a question, including its response categories.The tendency to crowd questions together to make the questionnaire look shorter — Form and Layout – The format, spacing and positioning of questions can have a significant effect on the results and should be done properly.—
33. Pretesting – Refers to the testing of the questionnaire, on a small sample of respondents to identify and eliminate potential problems. All aspects of the questionnaire should be tested, including question content, wording, sequence, form and layout, question difficulty and instructions. The respondents in the pretest should be similar to those who will be included in the actual survey in terms of background characteristics, familiarity with the topic and attitudes and behaviors of interest. —
34. Measurement and ScalingMeasurement means assigning numbers or other symbols to characteristics of objects according to certain prespecified rules.Scaling involves creating a continuum upon which measured objects are located. For eg. Consider a scale from 1 to 100 for locating consumers according to the characteristic “attitude toward department stores.” Each respondent is assigned a number from 1 to 100 indicating the degree of favorableness with 1 = extremely unfavorable and 100 = extremely favorable. Measurement is the actual assignment of a number from 1 to 100 to each respondent. Scaling is the process of placing the respondents on a continuum with respect to their attitude toward department stores.
35. Nominal Scale – A nominal scale is a figurative labeling scheme in which the numbers serve only as labels or tags for identifying and classifying objects. For eg. The numbers assigned to the respondents in a study constitute a nominal scale. University Registration Numbers assigned to students, Bus Route Numbers and Numbers on the jerseys of cricket players are examples of Nominal scale. The numbers used in nominal scales serve only the purpose of counting and the idea is to make sure that no two persons or objects receive the same number. —Primary Scales of Measurement
36. PearsIn Market Research, we often ask the respondents to rank the items, like for eg., “ A soft drink, based upon flavor or color”. In such a case, the ordinal scale is used. — Dove— Cinthol— Liril— Lux— Ordinal Scale (Ranking Scale)- An ordinal scale is a ranking scale in which numbers are assigned to objects to indicate the relative extent to which the objects possess some characteristic. Ordinal Scales are used to ascertain the consumer perceptions, preferences etc. For eg. The respondents may be given a list of brands which may be suitable and were asked to rank on the basis of ordinal scale of 1-5.—
37. Interval Scale – In an interval scale, numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal values in the characteristic being measured. An interval scale contains all the information of an ordinal scale, but it also allows you to compare the differences between objects.Eg. Suppose we want to measure the rating of a refrigerator using interval scale. It will appear as follows:1. Brand name Poor_____Good2. Price High_____ Low3. Service after-sales Poor_____GoodTemperature scale i.e., Centigrade and Fahrenheit are also interval scale, e.g the temperature of four cities are:Shimla – 15degrees, Delhi – 30 degrees, Bangalore – 22 degrees, Jaipur – 37 degrees.It can be said that the difference in the temperature of Delhi and Shimla is the same as difference in the temperature of Jaipur and Bangalore. However we cannot say that Delhi is two times warmer than Shimla. —
38. Ratio Scale – It is a special kind of internal scale that has a meaningful zero point. With this scale, length, weight or distance can be measured. In this scale, it is possible to say, how many times greater or smaller one object is being compared to the other.Eg. Sales this year for product A are twice the sales of the same product last year. —
39. Scaling Techniques Scaling Techniques Noncomparative Comparative Scales Scales Paired Rank Constan Continuous Itemized Q-Sort Rating RatingComparison Order t Sum Scales Scales Semantic Stape Likert Differenti l al
40. In noncomparative scales, each object is scaled independently of the others in the stimulus set. The resulting data are generally assumed to be interval or ratio scaled. For eg. Respondents may be asked to evaluate Coke on a 1-to-6 preference scale (1=not at all preferred, 6=greatly preferred) — Comparative scales involve the direct comparison of stimulus objects. Comparative scale data must be interpreted in relative terms and have only ordinal or rank order properties.Eg. In each of the following, which store do you think is bettera) Big Bazaar b) Food World c)Total d)Smart—Comparative Scaling Techniques
41. Paired Comparison Scaling – In paired comparison scaling, a respondent is presented with two objects and asked to select one according to some criterion. The data obtained are ordinal in nature. For eg.InstructionWe are going to present you with 6 pairs of Shampoo brands. For each pair, please indicate which one of the two brands of shampoo in the pair you would prefer for personal use.Recording Form Head and Shoulders linic Plus C Pantene Head and 0 1 Shoulders 1 Clinic Plus 1 Pantene 0 0Number of times 0 2preferred 1—Comparative Scaling Techniques
42. For eg. Rank the various brands of toothpaste in order of preference. Begin by picking out the one brand that you like the most and assign it a number 1. The least preferred brand should be assigned a rank of 4.Brand Rank OrderClose Up _______ Colgate _______ __Pepsodent _______ Meswak _______ — Rank Order Scaling – A comparative scaling technique in which respondents are presented with several objects simultaneously and asked to order or rank them according to some criterion.—A 1 in a particular box means that the brand in that column was preferred over the brand in the corresponding row. A 0 means that the row brand was preferred over the column brand. The number of times a brand was preferred is obtained by summing the 1‟s in each column.
43. Constant Sum Scaling – In constant sum scaling, respondents allocate a constant sum of units, such as points among a set of stimulus objects with respect to some criterion. Respondents may be asked to allocate 100 points to attributes of a toilet soap in a way that reflect the importance they attach to each attribute. If an attribute is unimportant, the respondent assigns it zero points. If an attribute is twice as important as some other attribute, it receives twice as many points. The sum of all the points is 100. Hence, the name of the scale. —
44. Q-Sort – Q-sort scaling was developed to discriminate among a relatively large number of objects quickly. This technique uses a rank order procedure in which objects are sorted into piles based on similarity with respect to some criterion. For eg respondents are given 100 attitude statements on individual cards and asked to place them into 11 piles, ranging from “most highly agreed with” to “least highly agreed with”. —
45. Continuous Rating Scale – In a continuous rating scale, also referred to as a graphic rating scale, respondents rate the objects by placing a mark at the appropriate position on a line that runs from one extreme of the criterion variable to the other. Thus, the respondents are not restricted to selecting from marks previously set by the researcher.For eg. How would you rate Big Bazaar as a department store?Probably the worst ------------------- Probably the bestProbably the worst ------------------- Probably the best 0 10 20 30 40 50 —Non Comparative Scaling TechniquesRespondents using a noncomparative scale employ whatever rating standard seems appropriate to them. They do not compare the object being rated either to another object or to some specified standard, such as “your ideal brand.”
46. Likert Scale – It is a widely used rating scale that requires the respondents to indicate a degree of agreement or disagreement with each of a series of statements about the stimulus objects. Typically, each scale item has five response categories ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”. —Itemized Rating Scales – In an itemized rating scale, the respondents are provided with a scale that has a number or brief description associated with each category. The categories are ordered in terms of scale position; and the respondents are required to select the specified category that best describes the object being rated.
47. Example of Likert ScaleListed below are different opinions about Spar Hypermarket. Please indicate how strongly you agree or disagree with each by using the following scale:1= Strongly disagree2=Disagree3=Neither agree nor disagree4=Agree5=Strongly agree Strongly Diasgree Disagree Neither agree nor disgree Agree Strongly Agree1. Spar sells high-quality merchandise.2. Spar has poor in store-service.3. I like to shop at Spar.4. Sears charges fair prices.
48. Semantic Differential Scale – The semantic differential is a seven-point rating scale with end points associated with bipolar labels that have semantic meaning. In a typical application, respondents rate objects on a number of itemized, seven point rating scales bounded at each end by one of two bipolar adjectives, such as cold and warm. The respondents mark the blank that best indicates how they would describe the object being rated. For eg.InstructionsThis part of the study measures what certain department store means to you by having you judge them on a series of descriptive scales bounded at each end by one of two bipolar adjectives. Please mark (X) the blank that best indicates how accurately one or the other adjective describes what the store means to you.FormBig Bazaar is:Powerful _:_:_:_:_:_:_: WeakUnreliable _:_:_:_:_:_:_: ReliableModern _:_:_:_:_:_:_: Old-fashioned —
49. For eg. Please evaluate how accurately each word or phrase describes each of the department stores.Form : Big Bazaar+5 +5+4 +4+3 +3+2 +2+1 +1High Quality Poor Service-1 -1-2 -2-3 -3-4 -4-5 -5 — Stapel Scale – It is a unipolar rating scale with 10 categories numbered from -5 to +5, without a neutral point (zero). This scale is usually presented vertically. Respondents are asked to indicate how accurately or inaccurately each term describes the object by selecting an appropriate numerical response category. The higher the number, the more accurately the term describes the object.—
50. Multi-Dimensional Scaling –MDS is a statistical technique for taking the preference and perceptions of respondents and representing them on a visual grid, called perceptual maps. Potential customers are asked to compare pairs of products and make judgments about their similarity. Whereas other techniques obtain underlying dimensions from responses to product attributes identified by the researcher, MDS obtains the underlying dimensions from respondents‟ judgments about the similarity of products. The underlying dimensions come from respondents‟ judgments about pairs of products. —
51. For eg. Given a matrix of perceived similarities between various brands of deodorants, MDS plots the brands on a map such that those brands that are perceived to be very similar to each other are placed near each other on the map and those brands that are perceived to be very different from each other are placed far away from High Price each other on the map. Dov Yardley Revlo n eMild Fragrance Strong Fragrance Eva Low Price
52. Action movies provoke the kids to perform dangerous actions. 2. Duplicate and irrelevant statements are omitted. The rest are typed on 3/5 cards and given to a group of people who will serve as judges. 3. Originally, judges are asked to sort the statements into 11 stacks representing the entire range of attitudes from extremely unfavorable (1) to extremely unfavorable (11). The middle stack is for statements which are neither favorable nor unfavorable. Only the end points and the midpoint are labeled. The assumption is the intervening stacks will represent equal steps along the underlying attitude dimension.Unfavorable of the following statements indicating the degree to Rate each Neutral Favorable which the statement is unfavorable or favorable to action movies. — Action movies reduce the boredom of our life. — Action movies make the kids courageous. — Action movies are thrilling. — Thurstone Equal appearing Interval Scale – 1. Collect statements on the topic from people holding a wide range of attitudes, from extremely favorable to extremely unfavorable. For this example, we will use attitude toward action movies. —
53. Contd.4. Each statement will have a numerical rating (1 to 11) from each judge, based on the stack in which it was placed. The number or weight assigned to the statement is the average of the ratings it received from the judges.If the judges cannot rate the item on its favorability or show a high degree of variability in their judgments, the item is eliminated.
54. Reliability – Refers to the extent to which a scale produces consistent results if repeated measurements are made. Approaches for assessing reliability include:1. Test-Retest Reliability – Respondents are administer—Characteristics of good Measuremented identical sets of scale items at two different times under as nearly equivalent conditions as possible. The time interval between tests or administrations is, typically two to four weeks.2. Alternative forms Reliability – Two equivalent forms of the scale are constructed. The same respondents are measured at two different times, usually two to four weeks apart, with a different scale form being administered each time.
55. Validity – Extent to which differences in observed scale scores reflect true differences among objects on the characteristic being measured. Researchers may assess:1. Content Validity – It is a subjective but systematic evaluation of how well the content of a scale represents the measurement task at hand.2. Criterion Validity – Reflects whether a scale performs as expected in relation to other variables selected as meaningful criteria. It may include demographic and psychographic characteristics, attitudinal or behavioral measures.3. Construct Validity – Addresses the question of what construct or characteristic the scale is, in fact, measuring. —
56. Possibility – Addresses whether the research is possible or not. It includes:1. Time possibility – whether it is possible in terms of time period available.2. Money possibility – whether sufficient funds are available to conduct the research.
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